Overview
Meditation has been practiced throughout history by adherents of all the world’s religions. In Roman Catholicism, for example, meditation consists of active, voluntary, and systematic thinking about a biblical or theological topic. Mental images are cultivated and efforts are made to empathize with God or with figures from the Bible. Eastern religious practices that involve thinking in a controlled manner have been described as meditation in the West since the 19th century. However we can go much back to prehistory to see evidence of meditative practices.
It’s worth bearing in mind as a key overview that every major institutional world religion has an esoteric, mystical path where meditative and spiritual practices are used. They are called esoteric or hidden, because the powerful man-made patriarchal institutions were and still are threatened by these practices which empowered spiritual aspirants to find the ‘Kingdom of God’ within which in turn may made redundant the formal roles of priest, rabbi or Iman. These practices were often portrayed as heretical, and proponents persecuted (see the Gnostics of Christianity and the Sufis of Islam)
Part 1 Timeline of Meditation Dvelopment.
Early Man
The first evidence of meditation can be found in cave drawings where pictures suggest shamanistic meditation was used to heal the sick. It has also been suggested that early man started meditating when staring into the flames of fires, which can create a trance like state. Prehistoric religion involved repetitive, rhythmic chants which today are commonly called mantras.
Ancient Spiritual Practices
Shamanism is the oldest form of human healing. It is a type of religious medicine that originated over 25,000 years ago in the Palaeolithic hunting cultures of Siberia and Central Asia. The English word shaman is derived from the Siberian Tungus word “saman,” which is defined as a technique of ecstasy. At its essence Shamanism is a tradition of part-time religious specialists who establish and maintain personalistic relations with specific spirit beings through the use of controlled altered states of consciousness. To get to these altered states diverse passive and dynamic meditative practices were used including dance (see Sufi’s whirling dancing dervishes below).
Hinduism
Hinduism is a major world religion originating on the Indian subcontinent and comprising several and varied systems of philosophy, belief, and ritual. Although the name Hinduism is relatively new, having been coined by British writers in the first decades of the 19th century, it refers to a rich cumulative tradition of texts and practices, some of which date to the 2nd millennium BC or possibly earlier. This estimate is based on the Indus valley civilization (3rd–2nd millennium BCE) which was the earliest source of these traditions, and some scholars hold therefore, that Hinduism is the oldest living religion on Earth.
Hinduism has been claimed, by some, to be the Mother of all recognisable spiritual practices and that Sanskrit uses the primordial sounds and vibrations of the universe long before Tesla came along with his famous quote “If you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency and vibration.”
The Hindu philosophical school of Yoga prescribes a highly elaborate process for the purification of body, mind, and soul. These are based on several key texts such as Pantanjali’s Yoga Sutras as well as other key philosophical texts such as The Upanishads and The Bhagavad Gita. Others have preferred Vedic religion, using the term Vedic to refer not only to these ancient religious texts known as the Vedas but also to a body of sacred works in multiple languages. Still others have chosen to call the religion sanatana dharma (“eternal law”), a formulation made popular in the 19th century and emphasizing the timeless elements of the tradition that are perceived to transcend local interpretations and practice. Finally, others, perhaps the majority, have simply accepted the term Hinduism or its analogues, especially hindu dharma which is Hindu moral and religious law. Most Hindus believe in Brahman, an uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, and all-embracing principle. The ultimate aim of meditation is Yoga (Union) with your Self, which is called the Atman. Once you have merged with your true nature Self, The Atman, then the final step is the Atman merging back to its source, Brahman. NB The physical exercises (asanas) of Yoga have come to define it is in the West. The yoga postures are only one of the eight limbs of yoga. The postures are to make the body fit, healthy and settled for the main event – meditation.
Buddhism
Hinduism and in turn, Buddhism, emerged from the same source i.e. groups of world renouncers of the 6th century BCE known as the rishis. Those ‘psychonauts’, explored inside the uncharted, unnamed world of consciousness, while holed up in the forests of India and the caves of the Himalayas. Buddhism shares common non-Vedic practices (such as renunciation and various Yogic meditational techniques) and doctrines (such as the belief in rebirth and the goal of liberation from reincarnation), but Buddhists do not accept the authority of the Vedic tradition and therefore, with some exceptions, are regarded as less than orthodox by Hindus.
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha (from Sanskrit – “Awakened One”), a teacher who lived in northern India between the mid-6th and mid-4th centuries BCE. Spreading from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and social life of Asia.
The three cornerstones of Buddhism are firstly, everything in life is impermanent and always changing. Secondly because nothing is permanent, a life based on possessing things or persons doesn’t make you happy and finally there is there is no eternal, unchanging soul. ‘Self’ is just a collection of changing characteristics or attributes. No Atman, no Brahman.
Taoism
Taoism is a Chinese religious tradition emphasising personal transformation and integration with the unseen forces of the universe. The term “Tao,” (literally “the way” in Chinese), has been variously understood in Taoism, though it generally refers to the highest dimensions of reality.
The Taoist’s name for their religion is Tao-chiao (“the teachings of the Tao”), It was highly educated aristocrats rather than peasants who wove together many diverse traditions and practices to form an inclusive new cultural and religious framework. That framework was designed to preserve all that was good and worthwhile within the indigenous religious heritage of China so that it could survive the challenge of Buddhism, which became prominent in China beginning in the fourth century C.E. Its most revered text and the one most familiar to those in the West is the Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu. I first read it as a teenager and was blown away by its simple language but challenging concepts. It teaches that the infinitely good and eternal source of creation lies within you. And it begins to correct your course the second you let it. You don’t have to try to be a good person, you are! It uses the language of paradox to explain the unexplainable aspects of reality which are beyond words. A typical quote and one of the most famous is “If you want to become whole, let yourself be partial. If you want to become straight, let yourself be crooked. If you want to become full, let yourself be empty”.
Christianity
The first monks of the Christian religion were Desert Fathers who lived in the desert areas of the Middle East, in approximately the second century AD. They left the busy lives of ordinary men and dedicated their lives to creating a quiet sanctuary within the desert. They saw meditation as a way into the soul. The monks’ wisdom, teachings and guidance were passed through generations by St Benedict (born 480 AD). Meditation is extensively used within Christian communities despite suppression by the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th Century. Through the work of modern mystics such as Thomas Merton and Richard Rohr have seen contemplative practices gained traction within modern Christianity.
Judaism
The origins of Judaism date back more than 3500 years. This religion is rooted in the ancient near eastern region of Canaan (which today constitutes Israel and the Palestinian territories). Judaism emerged from the beliefs and practices of the people known as “Israel”. Jewish people believe there’s only one God who has established a covenant—or special agreement—with them. Their God communicates to believers through prophets and rewards good deeds while also punishing evil. Most Jews (with a few exceptions) believe that their Messiah hasn’t yet come – but will one day.
Kabbalah (sometimes translated as “mysticism” or “occult knowledge”, is a part of Jewish tradition that deals with the essence of God. Whether it entails a sacred text, an experience, or the way things work, Kabbalists believe that God moves in mysterious ways. However, Kabbalists also believe that true knowledge and understanding of that inner, mysterious process is obtainable, and through that knowledge, the greatest intimacy with God can be attained. The Zohar, a collection of written, mystical commentaries on the Torah, is considered to be the underpinning of Kabbalah. Written in medieval Aramaic and medieval Hebrew, the Zohar is intended to guide Kabbalists in their spiritual journey, helping them attain the greater levels of connectedness with God that they desire.
Kabbalistic Meditation was created around 1000 AD, established through the Jewish Mystics where it was thought to enhance awareness of higher planes of consciousness. The intention is to make people the true carriers of the light of God. Kabbalah meditation continues to grow (see Madonna and celebrities with the red thread bracelets) and is thought to create peace and happiness through connection with God. The aims of this meditation are to bring joy, love and understanding to everything the person does or thinks.
Sufis and Islam
One of the truly creative manifestations of religious life in Islam is the mystical tradition, known as Sufism. It may be best described as Islamic mysticism or asceticism, which through belief and practice helps Muslims attain nearness to Allah by way of direct personal experience of God. Sufism is the esoteric aspect of Islam. The aim of Sufis is to gain direct knowledge of the eternal, in this life, as opposed to the exoteric, or traditionalist, aspect of Islam which focuses on achieving a state of blessedness after death by way of carrying out divinely prescribed works. The four principles of Sufism are Repentance, Sincerity, Remembrance, and Love. One aspect of a remembrance of God is the practice of “whirling dervishes” in Sufism due to their famous practice of whirling. Dervish is a common term for an initiate of the Sufi path; whirling is part of the formal sema ceremony.
Sufi Meditation is a central component of Islamic spirituality. The Sufi tradition centres on developing a personal relationship with God through self-knowledge and self-inquiry. It uses Zikr (chanting) and Muraqba (meditation) to empty the mind and heart of spiritual pollutants.
Transcendental Meditation
The Transcendental Meditation movement consists of the programmes and organisations connected with the Transcendental Meditation [TM] technique and founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. TM was first taught in the 1950s in India, he brought the technique to the U.S. in the 1960s. The Beatles were famously his most famous students leading to the acceleration of the practice in the West. It has continued since the Maharishi’s death in 2008. The guru derived TM from the ancient Vedic tradition of India. While meditating, the person practicing TM sits in a comfortable position with eyes closed and silently repeats a mantra.
Mindfulness
Mindfulness is a type of meditation in which you focus on being intensely aware of what you’re sensing and feeling in the moment, without interpretation or judgment. Practicing mindfulness involves breathing methods, guided imagery, and other practices to relax the body and mind and help reduce stress
Mindfulness originated from ancient eastern and Buddhist philosophy and dates back around 2500 years. The concept of mindfulness has been inspired by many, and Jon Kabat-Zinn and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts have been influential in establishing it in the western world. After being exiled from Vietnam, Thich Nhat Hanh was known as the father of modern mindfulness and one of the key figures in popularizing Buddhism in the West.
Part 2 Development of the main schools of meditation
Hinduism : Advaita (Non-Dualism) and Neo Advaita
In the early 21st century, Hinduism had nearly one billion adherents worldwide and was the religion of about 80 percent of India’s population. Despite its global presence, however, it is best understood through its many distinctive regional manifestations.
Advaita Vedanta is one of the schools of Hindu Vedantic philosophy and is based on the concept that the higher or true Self is identical to Brahman, the Absolute Reality. The term comes from the Sanskrit advaita, meaning “not two,” veda, meaning “knowledge,” and anta, meaning “end” or “goal.” It is non-dualism based on the Vedas, the ancient Hindu texts, specifically the Upanishads. It has gained a strong foothold in modern spiritual teaching often described as Non Dualism.
Neo-Advaita, also called the Satsang-movement is a new religious movement, emphasising the direct recognition of the non-existence of the “I” or “ego,” without the need of preparatory practice. Its teachings are derived from, but not authorised by, the teachings of the 20th century sage Ramana Maharshi and Nisargadatta Maharaj. Westerner teachers include Rupert Spira, Robert Adams, Mooji and Gangaji.
Buddhism
After the Second World War, mainstream Western Buddhism began to take shape, influenced by new Western writers on Buddhist thought and a new wave of immigration from Asian Buddhist countries. There was a dramatic rate of growth during the late 20th century. Westerners disaffected with the materialistic values of consumer culture and traditional Christianity (such as the beat generation of the 50’s and later the hippies in the 60’s), as well as those interested a more sober altered state of consciousness or psychedelic experience, were drawn to eastern religions like Buddhism during this period. This is known as the “Zen Boom”.
Zen Buddhism
With the growth of Japanese Buddhism from the 8th century onwards, meditative practices were brought to and further developed in Japan. The Japanese monk Dosho learned of Zen during his visit to China in 653. When Dogen returned to Japan from China around 1227, he wrote the instructions for Zazen, or sitting meditation, and conceived of a community of monks primarily focused on Zazen
Zen emphasises the practice of meditation as the key ingredient to awakening ones inner nature, compassion and wisdom. The practice of meditation (Zen in Japanese) as a means of attaining enlightenment was introduced, by the Buddha himself. Zen approached Buddhism in the most direct, simple and practical way. It grasped that enlightenment was the most fundamental aspect of Buddhism and thus did away with sacred scriptures, rituals and objects of worship, all of which had become a major aspect of Mahayana Buddhism in India. This stripping away of religious ritual is very appealing to secular westerners.
Transcendental Meditation
The TM organisation was estimated to have 900,000 participants in 1977, a million by the 1980s, and 5 million in more recent years. The actual TM technique is simple and effortless. You sit comfortably with your eyes closed and practice twice a day for 20 minutes. Advanced teachniques and Siddhi techniques are available for advanced practitioners.
With the Transcendental Meditation technique, you don’t need an app to guide your meditation. Instead, you silently repeat a mantra in your head. That said the Virya app does support this type of self-transcending technique though not currently available on Android. Apps like Insight Timer are useful in tracking daily meditation habits and can help in motivating the beginner to see their progress and stick with the practice.
Mindfulness
It was estimated in 2020 that just below 8 million adults in Britain had learnt to practise mindfulness and around 12 million adults in Britain had never heard of mindfulness, based on the latest mid-year estimate of the UK adult population above 18 years of age from the Office for National Statistics. Being mindful has gone mainstream and the phrase is commonly used in everyday conversations regarding almost any activity eg eating, washing, exercising.
It has begun to infiltrate education as well. Mindfulness programmes for schools have become popular. These programs provide mindfulness training with the goal of helping students and educators manage stress and anxiety, resolve conflicts, control impulses, and improve resilience, memory, and concentration.
Mindfulness has also been embraced in therapy and psychology. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, MBCT, is a modified form of cognitive therapy that incorporates mindfulness practices that include present moment awareness, meditation, and breathing exercises. This therapy was formulated to address depression.